#emic-etic

Adapt research methods for cross-cultural validity. Cultural considerations: 1. Emic vs. etic approaches: culture-specific vs. universal constructs. 2. Translation and back-translation of instruments. 3. Cultural adaptation beyond language: examples, scenarios, response formats. 4. Sampling challenges: representativeness across cultural groups. Measurement equivalence: 1. Conceptual equivalence: construct means same thing across cultures. 2. Functional equivalence: serves same purpose in daily life. 3. Metric equivalence: same scale properties (factor loadings). 4. Scalar equivalence: same intercepts and thresholds. Analysis strategies: 1. Multi-group confirmatory factor analysis to test equivalence. 2. Differential item functioning (DIF) analysis for biased items. 3. Cultural consensus analysis to identify shared vs. individual beliefs. Ethical considerations: 1. Collaborative partnerships with local researchers. 2. Community consent in addition to individual consent. 3. Benefit sharing and capacity building in study communities.